Click Map For More Detail KeyWords: Geoffrey of Monmouth "History of the Kings of Britain" Arthurian legend Arthurian romance Monmouth Priory Walter, Archdeacon of Oxford Normans "Brut y Tywysogion" St. Asaph Robert, Earl of Gloucester KeySources: Geoffrey's "Historia" Click Here to Read Online Click Here to Download Book VI Click Here to Download Book VII Click Here to Download Book VIII Click Here to Download Book IX Click Here to Download Book X Click Here to Download Book XI

The Life of Geoffrey
Very little is known of Geoffrey of Monmouth's life. He doesn't tell us much about himself, but a few details can be pieced together from what we have at hand. He was probably born around 1100, and was Welsh by birth, but may have had one Breton parent. His name, in Latin, was Gaufridus Monemutensis, indicating a birthplace or some close association with the town of Monmouth, and on several occasions, he called himself Gaufridus Arturus, Geoffrey Arthur; perhaps it was his father's name, a patronymic, (although the name Arthur was not common in Wales during the early twelfth century; William Camden, in the early 17th C., called him 'Geffrey ap Arthur'; ap = son of) or perhaps a nickname given to himself in honour of his legendary hero.

Some scholars have claimed that, from his writings, it is evident that his education was chiefly in Latin and French and that Geoffrey had only a superficial knowledge of the Welsh language. The "Brut y Tywysogion," also known as the "Gwentian Brut," tells us that Geoffrey had an uncle, Uchtryd*, who was Archdeacon at Llandaff, and who owed his position to Robert, Earl of Gloucester (who would be the dedicatee for Geoffrey's "History of the Kings of Britain" = HKB). It would make sense, then, that Geoffrey would be influenced by and probably educated under the Norman system and be fully comfortable in their world.

There was a Benedictine Priory in Monmouth in those days, founded by William I, the Conqueror [pictured at right], and local tradition puts Geoffrey there for a time, possibly as a student, but it is not believed that Geoffrey took holy orders as a young man. There is evidence that Geoffrey became Archdeacon at Llandaff, following in the footsteps of his uncle, Uchtryd, who was elevated to the bishopric in 1140.

His Norman education notwithstanding, Geoffrey was still a Welshman and may have had some patriotic reasons for writing HKB, along with other, more practical motives. He believed in the former nobility of the British and said that he wanted these Welsmen to be able to remember their past glories and look forward to a bright future which, according to Merlin's prophecies written by Geoffrey, held the promise of the second coming of King Arthur.

Geoffrey at Oxford
Regardless of the impression one might get from his name, Geoffrey's main geographical association is with Oxford. In those days, there was no Oxford University, per se, but the city was enjoying a resurgence in the early 12th century and it was, even then, known as a center for learning. Geoffrey may have been a secular canon of the college of Augustinian Canons of St. George, there. His name is seen witnessing to six charters between the years 1129-51, all concerning religious houses in and around Oxford. He sometimes signs his name, 'magister,' which may imply that he held a teaching position at that time.

It was here that Geoffrey met one Walter, Archdeacon* of Oxford; the same Walter to whom Geoffrey gave credit for giving him what he tells us was an old book which he would use as the authority for the HKB. Walter was the Provost of the College of St. George and was co-witness to five of those six charters on which we see Geoffrey's name (the sixth was signed in 1151, after Walter's death). It is possible that their association came as a result of their acquaintance while at St. George's. We also find Geoffrey's name as a signatory to the Treaty of Westminster of 1153, wherein King Stephen, under pressure from the nobility on both sides, agreed to accept Henry Fitz-Empress (Henry Plantagenet, the future Henry II) as his heir.

"The History of the Kings of Britain"
As has been often said, whatever else his contributions might have been, Geoffrey's main impact on the world, then and now, is as a result of his writing of the HKB and for this one thing, he will be long remembered. He has been called King Arthur's Official Biographer. He said that in reading other histories, much had been left out about origins of Britain and the deeds of many early kings, particularly King Arthur, and so, his stated purpose was to fill this gap. He was aided, as has been mentioned earlier, by Walter of Oxford, who provided Geoffrey with oral information gleaned from his many travels and experiences and, most intriguingly, ". . .a certain very ancient book written in the British language," his "liber vetustissimus."

The authenticity of this book has been debated by scholars for centuries and the most widely held opinion among modern investigators is that this book never existed, but was used as a literary device, a time-honored, medieval technique of quoting an authoritative, but, unfortunately, now-lost source. But, whether or not Geoffrey had a real "ancient book" or not, he did use identifiable sources for his writing. He was no historian and can't be trusted for accurate historical information, but he did use history as the starting point for producing his literature. Acton Griscom, the noted early 20th century scholar, said,

". . . because first and foremost, Geoffrey was bent on turning chronicle history into literature."

This is not to say that it's all wrong, or that nothing Geoffrey says is true (although that very accusation has been made). He does provide occasional time calibrations and uses just enough known history to give the reader the confidence that somoe of it might, at least, have happened the way Geoffrey said it did. Fletcher absolves Geoffrey of any intentional wrongdoing, saying that he is "innocent of evil intent" and should be given the benefit of the doubt. He goes on to say that Geoffrey's genius lay not in manufacturing but in developing his material; taking raw materials, already in existence, and shaping them into something new.

Geoffrey stressed personalities in the HKB and introduced us to a cornucopia of quasi-historical and outright fictitious characters. He wrote history the way he wished it had been and, in the process, he elevated the self-esteem of his British countrymen by giving them a glorious history which could compete, at any level, with that of Rome. And, his contribution to the reputation of Arthur cannot be overstated. He is the first writer to elevate him to a place of pre-eminence over other British rulers, and Geoffrey was the first to make him a world conqueror. Much of what has been believed about Arthur through the ages, can be traced back to Geoffrey, and it is not too much to say that he is the one most responsible for making Arthur into what he is, today.

Geoffrey Gets His Due
It would be naive to assume that Geoffrey's motives were only patriotic. Some benefit came to him in the form of more work, as a result of the notice his HKB had received. The "Brut y Tywysogion" tells us that because of it, "many scholars and chieftains sought his tuition." Geoffrey may also have been operating partly out of envy of William of Malmesbury's and Henry of Huntingdon's fame and success (Fletcher, p.55) and there can be no doubt that he hoped to be rewarded by his Norman masters. His patron was Robert, Earl of Gloucester, the illegitimate, but influential, son of Henry I, and it was to him that Geoffrey dedicated his history. It must have occurred to him that he could advance his career by pleasing Robert.

From the Norman point of view, Geoffrey's work was valuable in that he gave them Arthur's Imperial Monarchy, to which they were now heirs, since Arthur had ruled over their French homelands and their new land of Britain. It enhanced their legitimacy and gave them a legend to equal or surpass the French national legend, Charlemagne.

In 1151, as a reward for his services (certainly not because of his deep spirituality or commitment to the church), Geoffrey was made Bishop of St. Asaph. In February of 1152, he took priestly orders and was consecrated at Lambeth Palace by Archbishop Theobald that same month. Geoffrey died in 1155 and there is no record that he was ever able to visit his new See. Some believe that he would never have been received there, anyway, because of Owain Gwynedd's ongoing rebellion against the English and the "taint" that clung to Geoffrey as a result of his association with them.

By carefully embellishing existing traditions and sources, Geoffrey gave Arthur a pedigree, a birthplace, a sword, a wife, a court and military campaigns. He gave the new, Norman rulers of England the symbolic tool they needed to elevate themselves to the level of the kings of France, and beyond. Geoffrey gave them an Arthur who was a real emperor who ruled not only over England, but Ireland, Iceland, Scandinavia, parts of Gaul, and even challenged Rome, itself.

It is axiomatic that all successful states create and manipulate symbols in order to achieve and maintain power. The symbolic value of the legend of Arthur has been appreciated and used to advantage by many English monarchs since the times of the Normans, and each of them who has owes a debt of thanks to the creator of that legend, Geoffrey of Monmouth.

Click for further discussion of Geoffrey's "History of the Kings of Britain."

For Analysis of Other Arthurian Sources:
Gildas' "De Excidio Britanniae"
Nennius' "De Excidio Britanniae"
The Welsh Annals "Annales Cambriae"

--------------------------------------------
* An Archdeacon is an assistant to and appointed by a bishop, responsible for a specific administrative area within the bishop's diocese..

--------------------------------------------

Bibliography
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Ashe, Geoffrey, "King Arthur's Avalon: The Dream of a Golden Age", Thames & Hudson, London, 1990

Barber, Richard, "King Arthur: Hero and Legend", St. Martin's Press, New York, 1961

Chambers, E.K., "Arthur of Britain", Cambridge: Speculum Historiale, 1927, 1964

Fletcher, Robert Huntington, "The Arthurian Material in the Chronicles", Burt Franklin, New York, 1966 (2nd edition, original published in 1905)

Thorpe, Lewis, trans., "Geoffrey of Monmouth: The History of the Kings of Britain", Penguin Books, London, 1966

Thorpe, Lewis, trans., "Gerald of Wales: 'The Journey Through Wales' and 'The Description of Wales' ", Penguin Books, London, 1978